The ASME U Stamp is an indication of quality for Pressure Vessels. It ensures that the design, fabrication, inspection, and testing of pressure vessels conform to ASME’s guidelines. ASME U stamp is provided on the body or the nameplates of the pressure vessels as a certification to meet ASME requirements. Globally, more than 100 countries use the ASME BPVC code for the pressure vessel design and U-stamped vessels follow the requirements of ASME Sec VIII Div 1. For the maximum protection of life and property, ASME provides rigorous rules for Pressure vessels. In many countries, the government made it compulsory to purchase ASME U-stamped vessels.
Advantages of ASME U Stamp
The main advantages of the ASME U Stamp are listed below:
In many countries, for pressure vessel installations in human occupancy, the ASME U stamp is a must.
ASME U stamp is a mandatory requirement of most Insurance companies.
ASME U stamp is accepted under all jurisdictions.
Sometimes for approvals by local regulating agencies, the ASME U stamp is a requirement.
ASME U Stamp requirements
The pressure vessels under ASME U stamp requirements are specifically inspected by a third-party authorized inspector. The inspector must review and approve the calculations as well as witness the ASME hydro test. Such inspectors are commissioned by the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors. A complete data report is furnished in form U-1 containing the signature of the authorized inspector. The manufacturers of such pressure vessels need to be registered with the National Board for the production of ASME U-stamped pressure vessels. Also, they need to maintain a permanent data record of all pressure vessels.
The manufacturers wishing to qualify as ASME certified need to go through the following stringent safety procedures:
Preparation Stage: The manufacturer must fulfill all requirements, and fill all checklists.
Application stage: Submit the complete application along with a signed Accreditation and Certification Agreement Form and the required fee.
Assessment Stage: ASME review team will examine the design, manufacturing, inspection, and quality system of the applicant. Once the assessment is complete, the team will submit an evaluation report to the higher authority.
Certification Stage: Once the applicant successfully demonstrates the implementation of quality programs in every stage of vessel manufacturing, he is entitled to the ASME certification. Upon receipt of the accreditation, the manufacturer can stamp the ASME mark on the vessel’s surface or Nameplates. Fig. 1 below shows a sample ASME certification stamp template.
Fig. 1: Sample ASME Certification Template
For more details about the marking methods, nameplate details and data reports kindly refer to UG-118 to UG-120 from the latest edition of ASME BPVC Sec VIII Div. 1.
There is a timeline involved for each stage mentioned above. The following flow chart (Fig. 2) by the ASME provides a guideline for the same.
Fig. 2: ASME Certification Timeline
Is ASME U stamping a mandatory requirement?
No, the U stamp is not a mandatory requirement. The requirement is decided by the client company. As pressure vessels operate in a wide variety of processes and environments, It is crucial to design and fabricate vessels of the highest possible standard and quality. ASME U stamp satisfies that requirement. Failure to obtain an ASME vessel can sometimes put the business at risk.
When do Pressure Vessels need Certification or U-Stamping?
Any vessel carrying pressure in excess of 15 PSI falls under the ASME Code and should be stamped or certified by the ASME. However, there are other factors as well.
How to find ASME Certified Companies in a country?
If you wish to learn more about Pressure Vessels, their design, fabrication, installation, etc in depth, then the following online courses will surely help you:
Drip Legs are vertical piping pockets installed in steam piping to collect condensate. Installing drip legs in the proper location serves the purpose of a successful, water-hammer-free, system start-up.
Purpose of Drip Legs
Drip Legs are installed in steam mains to serve the following purposes:
Drip Legs are used for removing entrained moisture from the steam transmission and distribution lines to ensure high-quality steam for use in various plant applications, while also preventing damaging and dangerous water hammer.
As steam travels at high velocity through piping, moisture forms as the result of piping heat losses and/or improper boiler control resulting in condensate carryover.
Drip legs are therefore located at points where condensate may accumulate to allow for drainage by gravity down to a steam trap for proper discharge from the system. Since condensate drains by gravity, drip legs must be located on the bottom of the piping and designed with diameters large enough to promote the collection.
Drip Leg Installation guidelines
Due to heat loss and system start-up energy consumption, condensate is formed inside the steam pipes. For proper working of the steam system, this condensate must be drained by installing drip legs in main lines at appropriate locations.
Drip legs should be located at Vertical Lifts, Drops, or at the end of the steam line.
In the straight run of piping every 30 to 50 meters.
Installed directly ahead of the regulating or control valve, Manual Valves Closed for a Long Time.
TRACING Applications: tracer traps. Steam tracing refers to using steam to indirectly elevate the temperature of a product using jacketed pipes or tubing filled with steam
Drip Leg Configuration
Because condensate drainage from steam systems is dependent upon gravity, the drip leg (Fig. 1) diameter is critical for optimum removal – larger is better.
Fig. 1: Figure of a properly configured drip leg.
Fig. 2 below shows a typical loop used in a drip leg.
Fig. 2: Typical Drip Leg Loops from Steam Mains
Selection of Drip Leg Sizes
The selection of drip leg sizes for draining the main steam line depends on the types of warm-up methods as mentioned below:
Supervised Warm-up Method: Warming up of the power plant principal piping normally follows this method. Such lines are warmed up only once in a lifetime and hence long drip leg is not required.
Automatic Warm-Up Method: Such a warm-up method is used for frequent steam use leading to the requirement of bigger drip legs. A static head (dimension H in Fig. 2) is used in such cases.
Fig. 3 below provides the recommended Drip leg Sizes (Drip Leg Diameter and Leg Length) with respect to the main steam piping size.
Fig. 3: Recommended Drip Leg Sizing
A carefully designed drip leg enables steam traps to effectively drain the condensate from steam mains. For that, the drip legs should be large enough to allow the condensate to drop out of the steam at the pipe bottom. Recommended drip leg sizing table (Fig. 3) provides a good reference for such a scenario. In case the drip leg is not sized properly, the condensate will blow along with the steam without separating out as shown in Fig. 4.
When it comes to structural engineering and construction, the choice of beam design plays a crucial role in ensuring the integrity and safety of a structure. Among the most common types of beams used are H-beams and I-beams. While they may seem similar at first glance, each type has its own set of characteristics, advantages, and applications.
H-beam or I-beam
Both H-beam and I-beams are structural steel materials used widely in the construction industry by civil engineering professionals. By a novice, both these members may seem to be similar. The horizontal elements of the I and H beam are known as flanges, while the vertical element is called as the “web”. The web resists shear forces, and the flanges are designed to resist most of the bending moment that the beam experiences.
In general, The design of both I-beam and H-beam is governed by any of the following criteria:
deflection: The target criteria should be to minimize deformation
vibration: the stiffness and mass should be decided based on vibration tendency.
bending failure by yielding
bending failure by lateral torsional buckling
bending failure by local buckling
local yield due to the high magnitude of concentrated loads.
shear failure
buckling or yielding of components
However, both are quite different from one another. In this article, We will explore the main differences between I-beam and H-beam.
What is an H-beam?
H-beam is an incredibly strong structural steel member. As the cross-section of this beam resembles the capital letter “H”, it is known as H-beam. Fig. 1 shows a typical example of an H-beam. The main characteristics of H-beams are:
Shape: The cross-section is symmetrical, providing uniform strength in all directions.
Dimensions: Available in various sizes, typically larger than I-beams.
Weight: Generally heavier than I-beams, which can affect transportation and handling.
Fig. 1: H-beam Example
H-beams have an equal thickness in the two parallel flanges without any taper on the inside surface. Depending on the height and flange width; H-beams are classified into three categories. They are
Wide Flange Series H-beam
Medium Flange Series H-beam and
Narrow Flange Series H-beam.
H-beam Size Chart
Typical H-beam size and weight chart is provided in the table below: Refer to Fig. 2
H beam size and weight chart: Wide Flange Series (HW)
Grade
Size of the Section (in mm)
Cross-Sectional Area
Weight
Member Designation
H
B
t1
t2
r
cm2
kg/m
100 X 100
100
100
6
8
10
21.9
17.19
100x100x6x8
125 X 125
125
125
6.5
9
10
30.31
23.79
125x125x6.5×9
150 X 150
150
150
7
10
13
40.55
31.83
150x150x7x10
175 X 175
175
175
7.5
11
13
51.43
40.37
175x175x7.5×11
200 X 200
200
200
8
12
16
64.28
50.46
200x200x8x12
200
204
12
12
16
72.28
56.74
200x204x12x12
250 X 250
250
250
9
14
16
92.18
72.36
250x250x9x14
250
255
14
14
16
104.68
82.17
250x255x14x14
H beam size and weight chart: Medium Flange Series (HM)
150 X 100
148
100
6
9
13
27.25
21.39
148x100x6x9
200 X 150
194
150
6
9
16
39.76
31.21
194x150x6x9
250 X 175
244
175
7
11
16
56.24
44.15
244x175x7x11
300 X 200
294
200
8
12
20
73.03
57.33
294x200x8x12
H beam size and weight chart: Narrow Flange Series (HN)
175 X 90
175
90
5
8
10
23.21
18.22
175x90x5x8
200 X 100
198
99
4.5
7
13
23.59
18.52
198x99x4.5×7
200
100
5.5
8
13
27.57
21.64
200x100x5.5×8
250 X 125
248
124
5
8
13
32.89
25.82
248x124x5x8
250
125
6
9
13
37.87
29.73
250x125x6x9
Fig. 2: H-beam Cross Section (Reference for table dimensions)
What is an I-beam?
I-beams are also structural steel members but their cross sections resemble the capital letter “I”. Consisting of two flanges and one web, an I-beam has a slope on the inner surface of the flanges. Depending on the use, I-beam sections are available in a range of weights, flange widths, sections, depths, and web thicknesses. The major characteristics of I-beams are:
Shape: The cross-section is also symmetrical but generally has narrower flanges compared to H-beams.
Dimensions: Available in a range of sizes, often lighter than H-beams.
Weight: Typically less weight than H-beams, making them easier to handle in certain applications.
Fig. 3 below shows a typical example of I-beams.
Fig. 3: I-beam example
I-beam Size Chart
I-beam size charts for some common structural sections are provided below:
Designation
Dimensions
Depth – H – (mm)
Width – B – (mm)
Web Thickness – d – (mm)
Cross-Sectional Area (cm2)
Weight (kg/m)
UB 127 x 76 x 13
127
76
4
16.5
13
UB 152 x 89 x 16
152.4
88.7
4.5
20.3
16
UB 178 x 102 x 19
177.8
101.2
4.8
24.3
19
UB 203 x 102 x 23
203.2
101.8
5.4
29.4
23.1
UB 203 x 133 x 25
203.2
133.2
5.7
32
25.1
UB 203 x 133 x 30
206.8
133.9
6.4
38.2
30
UB 254 x 102 x 22
254
101.6
5.7
28
22
UB 254 x 102 x 25
257.2
101.9
6
32
25.2
UB 254 x 102 x 28
260.4
102.2
6.3
36.1
28.3
UB 254 x 146 x 31
251.4
146.1
6
39.7
31.1
UB 254 x 146 x 37
256
146.4
6.3
47.2
37
UB 254 x 146 x 43
259.6
147.3
7.2
54.8
43
UB 305 x 102 x 25
305.1
101.6
5.8
31.6
24.8
UB 305 x 102 x 28
308.7
101.8
6
35.9
28.2
UB 305 x 102 x 33
312.7
102.4
6.6
41.8
32.8
UB 305 x 127 x 37
304.4
123.4
7.1
47.2
37
UB 305 x 127 x 42
307.2
124.3
8
53.4
41.9
UB 305 x 127 x 48
311
125.3
9
61.2
48.1
UB 305 x 165 x 40
303.4
165
6
51.3
40.3
UB 305 x 165 x 46
306.6
165.7
6.7
58.8
46.1
UB 305 x 165 x 54
310.4
166.9
7.9
68.8
54
UB 356 x 127 x 33
349
125.4
6
42.1
33.1
UB 356 x 127 x 39
353.4
126
6.6
49.8
39.1
UB 356 x 171 x 45
351.4
171.1
7
57.3
45
UB 356 x 171 x 51
355
171.5
7.4
64.9
51
UB 356 x 171 x 57
358
172.2
8.1
72.6
57
UB 356 x 171 x 67
363.4
173.2
9.1
85.5
67.1
UB 406 x 140 x 39
398
141.8
6.4
49.7
39
UB 406 x 140 x 46
403.2
142.2
6.8
58.6
46
UB 406 x 178 x 54
402.6
177.7
7.7
69
54.1
UB 406 x 178 x 60
406.4
177.9
7.9
76.5
60.1
UB 406 x 178 x 67
409.4
178.8
8.8
85.5
67.1
UB 406 x 178 x 74
412.8
179.5
9.5
94.5
74.2
UB 457 x 152 x 52
449.8
152.4
7.6
66.6
52.3
UB 457 x 152 x 60
454.6
152.9
8.1
76.2
59.8
UB 457 x 152 x 67
458
153.8
9
85.6
67.2
UB 457 x 152 x 74
462
154.4
9.6
94.5
74.2
UB 457 x 152 x 82
465.8
155.3
10.5
104.5
82.1
UB 457 x 191 x 67
453.4
189.9
8.5
85.5
67.1
UB 457 x 191 x 74
457
190.4
9
94.6
74.3
UB 457 x 191 x 82
460
191.3
9.9
104.5
82
UB 457 x 191 x 89
463.4
191.9
10.5
113.8
89.3
UB 457 x 191 x 98
467.2
192.8
11.4
125.3
98.3
Common Beam Standards
Common standards that govern the shape and tolerances of structural beam sections are:
AISC Manual
IS 808
ASTM A6,
DIN 1025
BS 4-1
AS/NZS 3679.1
EN 10024
EN 10034
EN 10162
H-beam vs I-beam: Difference between H-beam and I-beam
H-beam vs I-beam: Dimensions and Weight
An H-beam has a significantly thicker web than an I-beam.
An I-beam normally has a slope of 1:6 to 1: 10 in the flange whereas the H-beam has a uniform flange.
An H-beam is heavier as compared to an I-beam.
The distance of the flanges can be widened as per requirement for an H-beam section but the same is fixed for the I-beam.
The moment of inertia is different for both beams.
In an I-beam, the size of the web is greater than the size of the flange whereas in an H-beam it may not be true.
H-beam vs I-beam: Mechanical Properties
The cross-section of the I-beam is poor against twisting as compared to H-beam.
In general, H-beams are more rigid and can carry more load as compared to I-beams.
H-beams are used as columns while I-beams are used as beams.
H-beam vs I-beam: Manufacturing
An I-beam is manufactured as a single piece throughout, but an H-beam is normally manufactured by welding 3 pieces of metal.
An H-beam can be produced to any desired size and height whereas the production of I-beams is limited by the milling machine capacity.
For easy comparison, the differences between H-beam and I-beam are provided in the following table.
Feature
H-Beam
I-Beam
Cross-Section Shape
Resembles the letter “H”
Resembles the letter “I”
Flange Width
Wider flanges than I-beams.
Narrower flanges than H-beams.
Web Depth
H-beams have deeper web.
I-beams have shallower web.
Weight
Generally heavier than I-beams.
Typically lighter than H-beams.
Load-Bearing Capacity
H-beams possess higher load capacity.
I-beams have lower load capacity.
Stability
H-beams have better lateral stability than I-beams.
I-beams are more susceptible to buckling.
Applications
Major application of H-beams are found in bridges, high-rise buildings, heavy machinery, etc.
I-beams are widely used in residential, commercial, light industrial, etc.
Cost
H-beams are generally more expensive.
I-beams are typically less expensive.
Handling
H-beams require more robust lifting equipment. So, they are difficult to handle.
I-beams are comparatively easier to handle and transport.
Versatility
They are suitable for heavy-duty applications.
I-beams are the best for lighter loads.
Deflection
H-beams experience less deflection under load.
Comparatively more deflection under heavy loads.
Connection Types
Often welded for continuous support
Can be bolted or welded
Table 1: H-beam vs I-beam
This table summarizes the key differences, making it easy to compare H-beams and I-beams at a glance.
In conclusion, both H-beams and I-beams have unique properties that make them suitable for different applications in construction and engineering. H-beams offer higher load-bearing capacity and stability, making them ideal for heavy-duty applications, while I-beams provide a lightweight, cost-effective solution for lighter loads. The choice between the two should be based on a thorough understanding of the specific requirements of a project, including load conditions, cost considerations, and structural integrity.
Frequently Asked Questions: H-beam and I-beam
1. What is the primary difference between H-beams and I-beams?
The primary difference lies in their cross-sectional shapes. H-beams have wider flanges and a deeper web, while I-beams have narrower flanges and a shallower web, affecting their load-bearing capacities and applications.
2. Which beam is stronger: H-beam or I-beam?
H-beams generally have a higher load-bearing capacity due to their wider flanges and deeper web, making them suitable for heavy-duty applications. I-beams are lighter and more suited for lighter loads.
3. In what applications are H-beams typically used?
H-beams are commonly used in bridges, high-rise buildings, and heavy machinery support where high strength and stability are required.
4. Where are I-beams commonly found?
I-beams are typically used in residential construction, commercial buildings, and lighter industrial applications, where the loads are lower.
5. How do the costs compare between H-beams and I-beams?
H-beams are generally more expensive due to the larger amount of material used, while I-beams are typically less expensive, making them a cost-effective option for lighter applications.
6. Are H-beams easier to install than I-beams?
I-beams are usually easier to handle and install due to their lighter weight. H-beams require more robust lifting equipment during installation.
7. Can both beam types be welded or bolted?
Yes, both H-beams and I-beams can be either welded or bolted, but the choice depends on the specific structural requirements and design considerations.
8. What factors should be considered when choosing between H-beams and I-beams?
Factors to consider include the type and magnitude of loads, span length, budget constraints, and the specific application requirements.
9. Do H-beams and I-beams have different deflection limits?
Yes, H-beams typically exhibit less deflection under load compared to I-beams, making them more suitable for applications where deflection limits are critical.
10. What are the maintenance requirements for H-beams and I-beams?
Both types of beams require regular inspections for signs of corrosion or damage. The maintenance needs will depend on the environment and exposure conditions, such as humidity and industrial pollutants.
In a piping system, There are a lot of ways to isolate the flow. Many types of valves and blinding systems are available for this. But the use and purpose of the Needle valves are very different. Needle valves are sometimes referred to as Plunger valves. This helps piping professionals to perfectly control and regulate fluid flow and pressure. The Needle valve got its name because of its narrow needle-like plug and port arrangement. The needle valves are small in size but fluid flow controlling is of exceptional accuracy.
Needle valves are linear motion valves, Which are used in instrument systems for throttling small volumes. A needle valve is a manual valve that is used where continuous throttling is required for flow regulation. Needle valves are somehow similar to globe valves in design with the biggest difference of sharp needle-like disks of this. The needle valve has an isolation system with very precise which is attended by the fine movement of the shaft, which enables the gearbox to move the piston tube in a sliding motion for opening and closing position. In this article, we will help you to understand the following:
What is a Needle valve?
Symbols and uses of Needle valves
Parts of Needle valves
Working Principle of Needle valve
Advantages and Disadvantages of Needle valves
What is a Needle Valve?
Fig. 1: Needle Valve
A needle valve is a type of valve that can be used to regulate or complete the isolation of the fluid. The unique feature of the valve is the structure of a small plunger with the shape of a Needle. The plunger features a small handle to operate the easy and precise operation of the valve. When fully attached, the extended end of the valve fits exactly into the seat, a part of the appliance that is being regulated. In case of the valve is opened by mistake, then also space between and needle and the seat is so less, that a minimal amount of substance will be allowed to pass through it.
Needle Valve Symbol
Like Every pipe fitting and Special Item, the Needle valve has its own symbology system. Common Needle Valve Symbol is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Needle Valve Symbol
Parts of a Needle Valve
Needle valves consist of three major parts, the valve body and seat, the stem and stem tip, and the packing and bonnet. The stem incorporates fine threads to allow micrometer-like needle adjustment relative to the seat.
Fig. 3: Parts of a Needle Valve
Referring to the above image and corresponding marked serial numbers name of parts of the needle valve is as below:
Valve handle
Nut
Bonnet
Valve body
Seat
O-ring
Packing
Stem
Handle screw
The needle valve body is normally made up of Brass, Bronze, Stainless Steel, or any other alloy materials. Valve seats are usually manufactured from PVC, CPVC, Plastic, PTFE, or Thermoplastic Materials.
Depending on the position of the needle, needle valves are available in three basic configurations.
as a simple screw-down valve (T-type needle valve)
oblique needle valve (angle pattern) that offers a more direct flow path, and
controlled outlet flow at a right angle to the main flow.
Needle valves normally provide Z- or L-shaped flow path through the body.
Application of Needle Valves
Wherever precise flow measurement is the required role of the needle valve comes into play. In comparison with a diaphragm valve, a Needle valve can handle more differential pressure.
Needle valves find their application in almost every industry wherever control or metering of steam, gas, oil, air, water, or other non-viscous liquids is needed. Needle valves are widely used in Power generation, Zoological sciences, Cooling, Instrumentation control, and Gas and liquid dispensation industries.
In slurries and viscous media, the needle valve is avoided as a small orifice can easily be blocked by thick material or solids.
Role of Needle Valves
The major roles that a needle valve performs are
Flow control
In pump start
Pressure regulation
Turbine by-pass
Flow discharge
Air regulation
Reservoir inlet
Use of a Needle Valve
A needle valve finds its wide uses in the following applications:
All analog field instruments are installed with a needle valve to control the flow movement.
Needle valves help in situations where the flow needs to stop gradually.
The needle valve can be used as an on/off and throttle valve.
This can be used where metering applications are required such as steam, air, gas, oil, or water.
A needle valve is helpful with sample points in piping where a very little flow rate is required.
This valve can be used on gas bleeder lines.
Needle valves are used in automated combustion control systems in which accurate flow regulation is required.
It is used with constant pressure pump governors in order to reduce the fluctuation in the pump discharge
Types of Needle Valve
Depending on the operation style, three types of needle valves are available in the market. They are:
Manually operated threaded needle valve
Motorized Needle Valve: Use an electric or pneumatic actuator for operation.
Angle Needle Valve: Turn the output by 90 degrees instead of in-line.
Working Principle of Needle Valves
Needle valves can be operated either manually or automatically. Manually operated needle valves use a handwheel to open or close their disc. When Handle is turned in a clockwise direction its plunger lifts to open the valve and allow fluid to pass through. When the Handle is turned in an Anti-clockwise direction the plunger moves closer to the seat to decrease the flow rate and finally intercepts the flow of fluid.
Automated needle valves are connected to the hydraulic motor or an air actuator that helps to automatically open and close the valve. The motor or actuator will help to adjust the position of the plunger according to the timer or external data fed into the system, that is gathered during monitoring.
Both manually and automatically operated needle valves provide precise control of fluid flow rate. The handwheel is accurately threaded which means it takes multiple turns to adjust the position of the plunger from the seat. As a result, the needle valve can help better in regulation the flow rate in the system.
Needle Valve Design Standards
Frequently used needle valve design standards governing the valve design and selection are:
ASME B16.34
BS 7174 P4
MIL-V-24586
PIP PNDMV09N
Needle Valve Selection
The parameters that affect the selection of the right needle valve are
The main advantages that a needle valve serves are
With the help of this valve flow control at a very low rate with higher accuracy is possible.
Needle valves are smaller in size. So, there is no issue of space during its installation.
Throttling even with less volume of fluid is possible with this valve.
Flow rates can be adjusted precisely.
Its operation is easier.
Disadvantages of Needle valve
A few drawbacks of needle valves are
There is a high-pressure loss in the needle valve because of the high restriction of fluid flow.
They can be used only for low-flow rate piping systems.
There can be damage to the seat and needle if the fluid has solid particles.
It is not possible to say if it is in an open or closed position just by examining the handle position.
Immediate opening or closing is not possible in these types of valves. Immediate operations can damage the seat of the need valve.
Ball Valve vs Needle Valve
The main differences between a ball valve and a needle valve are tabulated below:
Ball Valve
Needle valve
Ball valves use a Spherical ball for valve operation
Uses a needle to open and close the valve
Ball valves are Quarter turn Valve
Needle valves are Linear motion valve
Ball valves have Poor flow control
Needle valves have precision flow control
Table: Ball Valve vs Needle Valve
About the Author
A major part of this article is written by Mr. Vaibhav Raj, a Piping Engineer by profession, currently working with a leading MNC as an Asst. Manager (Piping). To date, He successfully executed four Oil and Gas Projects in India with various clients Like EIL, RIL, SHELL, and RSPL. He is the lead author of the blog “ALL About PIPING“.
Types of Construction Equipment for Oil & Gas Projects
Construction Equipment plays an important role in the construction process. Proper selection of equipment is necessary for the Economy, Quality, Safety, Speed, and Timely completion of the Project. A wide range of construction equipment is used in the construction industry to help to perform jobs in a smooth and easy way. Even though most construction equipment is quite common among industries, there could be the use of specialized construction equipment depending on the requirement. In this article, We will list down the name of construction equipment that is used frequently in Oil & Gas Projects. Fig. 1 below shows examples of typical construction equipment.
Types of Construction Equipment
Broadly, Construction Equipment is classified into the following groups:
Earth Moving equipment
Road making equipment
Hauling equipment
Piling equipment
Concrete Equipment
Quarry equipment
Pneumatic equipment
Lifting and handling equipment
Slip form equipment
Welding equipment
Shop Fabrication and Testing equipment
Pipe laying equipment
Construction equipment for electrical installation
Floating Equipment for marine works
Tunneling equipment
Other miscellaneous equipment
Earthmoving Equipment
Earthmoving equipment performs the task of digging and moving the earth. The name of construction equipment that falls under the earthmoving equipment category are:
The hardness of a material is its ability to resist localized permanent deformation, penetration, scratching, or indentation. So, it is an important parameter in engineering. Hardness testing provides a means to quantify the hardness of a material, and it is a key element in many quality control procedures and R&D work. Several methods are available for hardness testing. However, Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Knoop, Mohs, Scleroscope, and the Files test are the most widely used hardness tests. In this article, we will learn about the Brinell Hardness Test, its procedure, related formulas, applications, advantages, and standards.
1. What is the Brinell Hardness Test?
The Brinell Hardness Test method is the most commonly used hardness measurement technique in the industry. In the Brinell Hardness Testing, the hardness of a metal is determined by measuring the permanent indentation size produced by an indenter. Harder materials will generate shallow indentations while softer materials will produce deeper indentations. This test method was first proposed by Swedish engineer Johan August Brinell in 1900 and according to his name, the test is popular as the Brinell Hardness Test. This test is also popular as the Hb hardness test or the BHN hardness test.
ASTM E10 defines the Brinell hardness test as an indentation hardness test performed in a verified machine by forcing a tungsten carbide indenter into the test material surface.
2. Brinell Hardness Test Procedure
The Brinell Hardness Test is performed in a Brinell Hardness Test Unit. In this test method, a predetermined force (F) is applied to a tungsten carbide ball of fixed diameter (D), held for a predetermined time period, and then removed. The spherical indenter creates an impression (permanent deformation) on the test metal piece. This indentation is measured across two or more diameters and then averaged to get the indentation diameter (d). Using this indentation size (d), the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is found using a chart or calculated using the Brinell hardness test formula.
The equipment used for Brinell Hardness Testing is:
Brinell Hardness Testing Machine
Indenter Sphere, and
Brinell microscope to measure the generated impression.
2.1 Brinell Hardness Testing Machine:
The Brinell Hardness Testing Machine (Fig. 1) consists of a loading system that includes leavers, weights, a hydraulic dashpot, and a plunger enclosed in the body of the machine. The test material is kept on the adjustable anvil. Using the lever, the spherical ball indenter descends on the material with a predecided force that can be read on the screen. The machine typically has a hydraulic system that ensures the load is applied uniformly and can be held for a specific dwell time.
Fig. 1: Brinell Hardness Testing Machine
For softer metals, the force used is less than for harder metals. The force value varies from 1 kgf to 3000 kgf. Common test forces range from 500 kgf often used for non-ferrous materials to 3000 kgf for steels and cast irons.
2.2 Indenter Sphere
The indenter used in the Brinell hardness test is usually a hardened steel or carbide ball. There are four sizes of the indenter used for the Brinell hardness test. They are 1 mm, 2.5 mm, 5 mm, and 10 mm in size. The choice of diameter depends on the hardness of the material being tested.
To obtain the same BHN with different ball diameters, geometrically similar indentations must be produced. It is possible if F/D2 is maintained constant.
2.3 Measurement Tools
After the indenter is removed, the diameter of the indentation is measured using optical equipment, such as a microscope or a camera system.
3. Steps for The Test
3.1 Sample Preparation
To ensure accurate results, the test surface must be flat, smooth, and free from contaminants. Surface preparation may involve grinding or polishing the material.
3.2 Conducting the Test
Positioning the Sample: Secure the material sample in the testing machine.
Selecting the Indenter: Choose the appropriate ball diameter based on the material hardness.
Applying the Load: Gradually apply the specified load using the machine. The load should be maintained for a predetermined dwell time, usually between 10 to 15 seconds.
Removing the Load: After the dwell time, the load is removed carefully.
Measuring the Indentation: Use the appropriate measurement tool to accurately determine the diameter of the indentation.
3.3 Calculation of BHN
Using the measured values of F, D, and d, apply the BHN formula as per Fig. 2 to calculate the Brinell Hardness Number.
4. Brinell Hardness Test Formula
Once the average indentation diameter is measured the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN or HBW) can be calculated using the following Brinell hardness test formula:
Fig. 2: Brinell Hardness Test Equation
Here,
F=Applied force, in kgf
D=diameter of indenter, in mm
d=diameter of indentation, in mm
Note that, the term HBW stands for Hardness Brinell Wolfram carbide. Wolfram carbide (= tungsten carbide) underlines the use of tungsten carbide balls, as opposed to the (softer) steel balls previously used (HBS).
Fig. 3: Brinell Hardness Test
The minimum Test Specimen thickness is at least 10 times the indentation depth as per ASTM standard and the same is at least 8 times the indentation depth as per ISO standard.
5. Unit of Brinell Hardness
The BHN or HB values are mostly reported using only the number. So, it seems there is no unit for the Brinell Hardness Number. But that is not true. The unit of Brinell hardness is kgf/mm2. The same is quite clear from the above-mentioned HBW formula. The force term (F) in the numerator has a unit of kgf and the diameter term (D) has a unit of mm. In the SI unit system, the unit of hardness is N/m2
6. Specifying Brinell Hardness Number
While specifying a Brinell hardness number (BHN or HB), the test conditions used to obtain the number must be specified. The standard format for specifying is “HBW 10/3000”. “HBW” refers to a tungsten carbide ball used as an indenter, as opposed to “HBS”, which means a hardened steel ball. The “10” is the ball’s diameter in millimeters. The “3000” is the force in kilograms force.
Sometimes, the Brinell hardness is also specified as “XXX HB YYD2” where
XXX is the force to apply (in kgf)
YY specifies the material type (5 for aluminum alloys, 10 for copper alloys, 30 for steels).
Thus the Brinell hardness of a typical steel could be written: 250 HB 30D2. The following image from Wikipedia provides some typical Brinell Hardness Values of common materials.
Fig. 4: Typical Brinell Hardness Values
7. Requirements for Brinell Hardness Testing
Before the test, the sample must be cleaned thoroughly. Preferable if the test surface is machined, ground, and polished to get better indentation measurement.
Proper indenter (Steel ball or carbide Ball) as per requirement needs to be selected.
The applicable force needs to be determined beforehand.
The load on the specimen is to be maintained for the exact period of time.
The indents must be positioned to keep sufficient clearance from the specimen edge and between the individual indents.
8. Standards for the Brinell Hardness Test
The widely used standards for the Brinell Hardness Test in industries are:
ASTM E10: ASTM E10 specifies the test method for the Brinell hardness of materials, ensuring consistency and reliability in testing across various industries.
ISO 6506: The Brinell hardness test is standardized under ISO 6506. This standard outlines the testing procedures, equipment specifications, and calculation methods.
JIS Z 2243
9. Factors Influencing the Brinell Hardness Test Results
The measured value of BHN can be influenced by the following factors:
9.1 Material Properties
The microstructure and hardness of the material can significantly affect the indentation size. Softer materials will have larger indentations, while harder materials will show smaller indentations.
9.2 Load Selection
The load must be appropriately selected based on the hardness of the material. Too high a load can cause excessive deformation, while too low a load may not produce a measurable indentation.
9.3 Indenter Size
The diameter of the indenter influences the test results. A larger indenter can provide a more representative measurement for materials with a heterogeneous structure.
9.4 Dwell Time
The duration for which the load is applied (dwell time) can affect the indentation size, especially in materials that undergo time-dependent deformation (creep).
10. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Brinell Hardness Test
The Brinell Test method has many advantages:
The hardness of rough samples can be measured which is difficult with other methods.
Application of high test load (up to 3,000 Kg) is possible.
Wide measuring range due to availability of a range of indenter sizes and loads
A Brinell hardness tester can determine the hardness of all types of metals.
Provides reliable results.
The formula for calculating BHN is straightforward, making the test accessible for various industrial applications.
However, the Brinell test method has some disadvantages as well:
There could be measuring errors due to the use of optical instruments.
Surface imperfections can interfere with the test result if the surface is not prepared thoroughly.
The requirement of a flat surface makes this test redundant for cylindrical surfaces.
For materials above 650 HBW 10/3000, the Brinell hardness test is not recommended.
The process can be relatively slow compared to other hardness testing methods, especially in high-throughput environments.
11. Brinell vs Rockwell Hardness Test | Difference between Rockwell and Brinell Hardness Test
The main difference between the Brinell and Rockwell Hardness Test is provided in the table below:
Brinell Hardness Test
Rockwell Hardness Test
In Brinell Hardness Test the indenter is a spherical Tungsten Carbide Ball
For the Rockwell Hardness Test, the Indenter is a Small Steel Ball (HRB) or a diamond cone (HRC)
Hardness greater than 650 HB can not be measured with the Brinell Scale setup.
There is no such limitation in Rockwell hardness testing.
Large Indentation
Small Indentation
The Brinell hardness test measures the diameter of the indentation to calculate the hardness value.
Depth of indentation is measured for calculating Rockwell hardness.
High Load
Lower Load
The Brinell hardness testing method is a comparatively slow method. So, the method is time-consuming.
Rockwell hardness testing is a Quicker process. Hence, it is an efficient method.
Surface preparation is required for Brinell hardness testing.
No surface preparation is required for Rockwell hardness testing.
Generally used for thicker materials.
Suitable for thin and thick materials.
Versatile, suitable for a wide range.
Best for softer metals and alloys.
The main governing standard for Brinell Hardness Testing is ASTM E10.
The main governing standard for Rockwell Hardness Testing is ASTM E18.
Table 1: Brinell vs Rockwell Hardness Test
12. Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers Hardness Conversion Table
The approximate conversion of Brinell, Rockwell B & C, and Vickers hardness is provided below for sample only. One more column indicating approximate equivalent tensile strength is also added.
13. Relation between Brinell Hardness (BHN) and Tensile Strength
Note that, There is no concrete method of accurately converting the Brinell hardness numbers on one scale to Brinell hardness numbers on another scale, or to other types of hardness numbers, or to tensile strength values. Such conversions are, at best, approximations and, therefore should be avoided.
In general, with an increase in Brinell Hardness values the tensile strength also increases. There is an approximate formula that can be used to convert BHN to tensile strength (UTS) or vice versa. The relationship between BHN and UTS is based on Meyer’s index (n) from Meyer’s law devised by Eugene Meyer.
The approximate formula for calculating tensile strength for known BHN values for carbon steel material is given as follows:
Tensile Strength, PSI=515 X BHN (For Brinell numbers <= 175)
Tensile Strength, PSI=490 X BHN (For Brinell numbers > 175)
Note that, the above approximate formulas are not applicable for nonferrous metals.
14. Table of Brinell Hardness Numbers
The Brinell Hardness Numbers Table can easily be generated by solving the formula given above for different load and diameter conditions. A typical table of Brinell hardness numbers is produced in Fig. 5 below from ASTM E10 Table X1.1.
Fig. 5: Table of Brinell Hardness Numbers per ASTM E10
15. Uses of Brinell Hardness Test
Some of the applications of the Brinell hardness test are mentioned below:
Industrial Applications: Industries such as automotive, aerospace, and construction utilize the Brinell hardness test for product validation and performance assessment.
Quality control: The Brinell hardness test is commonly used in manufacturing and quality control to ensure that materials meet specific hardness requirements. For example, it can be used to test the hardness of steel components used in automotive, aerospace, or construction applications.
Material selection: The Brinell hardness test can be used to compare the hardness of different materials and to select the most appropriate material for a specific application. For example, it can be used to compare the hardness of different types of steel or to compare the hardness of steel and aluminum alloys.
Heat treatment evaluation: The Brinell hardness test can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of heat treatment processes on metals. For example, it can be used to determine whether a specific heat treatment has achieved the desired level of hardness.
Research and development: The Brinell hardness test is also used in research and development to investigate the properties of new materials and to develop new materials with specific hardness properties.
Failure analysis: The Brinell hardness test can be used in failure analysis to determine the cause of material failures. For example, it can be used to determine whether a component can fail due to insufficient hardness or to identify areas of a component that have been subjected to excessive stress.
Overall, the Brinell hardness test is a valuable tool for measuring the hardness of materials and is widely used in a variety of applications in industry, research, and development.
16. Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Brinell Hardness Scale?
Brinell hardness scale is a designation to identify the specific combination of ball diameter and applied force used to perform the Brinell hardness test.
What is the Brinell hardness test?
The Brinell hardness test is a method used to measure the hardness of materials, particularly metals and alloys. It involves pressing a hard spherical indenter into the material under a specific load and measuring the diameter of the resulting indentation.
What types of materials can be tested with the Brinell method?
The Brinell test is suitable for a wide range of materials, particularly metals and alloys with coarse or uneven grain structures. It is commonly used for steel, cast iron, and other metals.
How long should the load be applied during the test?
The load should typically be applied for a dwell time of about 10 to 15 seconds, although this can vary based on the material being tested.
Can the Brinell hardness test be performed on small samples?
The Brinell test is generally not recommended for small or thin samples due to the size of the indentation produced. For such cases, alternative methods like Rockwell or Vickers hardness tests may be more appropriate.
What standards govern the Brinell hardness test?
The Brinell hardness test is governed by several standards, including ISO 6506 and ASTM E10, which outline the procedures, equipment specifications, and calculation methods.
Is the Brinell hardness test a destructive test?
Yes, the Brinell hardness test is considered a destructive test because it leaves a permanent indentation on the material being tested.
What industries commonly use the Brinell hardness test?
The Brinell hardness test is widely used in industries such as metallurgy, automotive, aerospace, and construction, primarily for quality control and material selection purposes.
